Stuart Hall's Encoding and Decoding Model

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Keyword Entry: Scholarly Summary

I recently completed a keyword entry project as part of my COMS 581 Senior Project in Bachelor of Communication and Media Studies (BCMS) at the University of Calgary under Dr. Samantha Thrift's instruction. The first part of COMS 581 allowed me to develop my communication and media studies research skills, synthesize scholarly knowledge on keyword encoding-decoding, and express my understanding through writing. Here's the first part of my deliverable after two revisions.

The concepts of encoding and decoding have long been used to theorize communicative processes. In 1973, British cultural theorist, Stuart Hall, introduced the encoding and decoding model of communication in an article called "Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse" (Hall, 1973). His article was soon recognized as a breakthrough in communication studies, offering a different approach than "the lingering behaviourism" which had long plagued mass media studies (Hall, 1973, p. 5; Morley, 1992, p. 7). Hall's model established a solid foundation in cultural studies for understanding media representation and meaning-making as it takes place within a social context.

Prior to Hall's encoding-decoding model, other theories articulated more empirical and “symmetrical” explanations of the communication process. In 1948, Claude Shannon introduced the transmission communication model, later improved by Warren Weaver, in an article called "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" (Shannon & Weaver, 1964). It portrays communication as a one-way process where the message flows from sender to receiver through a channel and encoding-decoding process (Shannon, 1948, p. 2). The model is often referred to as a “symmetrical” model as it focuses on the technical aspect of communication with no regard to the complexities of social interactions between senders and receivers. While encoding depicts the conversion of meaning from spoken, written, and non-verbal communication into code, decoding describes the transformation of coded messages into written, oral, or non-verbal forms (Meyer, 2013, pp. 40-41). Wilbur Schramm, in 1953, recognized the lack of simultaneous message exchange and proposed the interactional communication model. Considering the article "The Process and Effects of Mass Communication," Schramm’s ideas refined Shannon-Weaver's model (Summerlin, 1991, p. 99). He introduced the feedback component in hopes of acknowledging active roles in shaping the meaning of both senders and receivers (p. 101). However, Hall (1973) proposed that the two models needed to be revised since both lacked an explanation of the sociocultural context for encoding and decoding meaning through media representation (p. 1).

Hall's encoding and decoding communication model proposed that meanings are constructed by the "operation of codes" (Hall, 1973, p. 2). Encoding and decoding have served as a foundation for the operation and are two key defining moments in this communicative model (p. 2). Hall also suggested these two moments are built "within the syntagmatic chains of a discourse" constructed by "frameworks of knowledge," "relation of production," and "technical infrastructure" (p. 2). Frameworks of knowledge refer to ideologies that individuals possess and are the foundation of encoding and decoding messages (Nida, 2019, n.p). On the other hand, relations of production serve as the social and economic relationships defined by social power structures (n.p). Lastly, technical infrastructure encompasses the channel through which the message is transmitted (n.p). These elements have converged to create a distinct model that provides a deeper sociocultural context and a different approach than models like Shannon-Weaver's and Schramm's in cultural studies. Specifically, Hall proposed "production, circulation, use (which here he calls distribution or consumption) and reproduction" as new stages of his communication process (During, 1993, p. 507).

The encoding process is divided into two stages which are production and circulation. Hall (1973) described the production stage as the beginning of the circuit in which encoders utilize frameworks of knowledge to generate media content and cultural artifacts (p. 3). Encoders in production, being television producers, designers, content creators, and podcasters, will apply their ideologies of products and audiences to encrypt a message into their chosen media format ranging from text, video, and audio. While messages can be produced as writing, recordings, and designs, they are distributed and disseminated in technical infrastructures commonly known as social media platforms, television, and radio. Hall (1973) identified this stage as circulation (p. 2). The technical infrastructure is crucial as the circulation stage influences the message's potential impact on its audience. While the effects are subliminal, individuals will continue to process messages in the following two stages: consumption and reproduction.

In the consumption stage, encoders such as audiences, listeners and viewers utilize their frameworks of knowledge to interpret the meaning of media messages. Conflicts in meaning interpretation might occur if encoders and decoders share different ideological positioning. Recognizing this certainty, Hall (1973) suggested three ways to interpret the code: dominant-hegemonic, negotiated, and oppositional. From a communication perspective, dominant-hegemonic reading is the ideal scenario. It occurs when decoders interpret the code as intended by the encoder (p. 16). This suggests that encoders and decoders share the same ideological position. Negotiated interpretations of the message occur when there is "a mixture of adaptive and oppositional element[s]" (p. 17). That means decoders accept and reject the message depending on their personal circumstances. Lastly, oppositional reading occurs when the intended message is understood but actively rejected or resisted by the decoder (Hall, 1973, p. 18). For instance, considering the popular video game Grand Theft Auto (GTA), non-players might interpret the game's meaning from an oppositional perspective – outright rejecting the game's violence and sexism – manifested in characters' language and narrative actions, including fighting and killing. Other gamers might recognize these problematic elements but still enjoy playing the game for its entertainment value – a "negotiated" reading (The Media Insider, 2017). On the other hand, some players may view GTA as a mere game that does not involve any moral considerations or criminal behaviour, which aligns with the "dominant-hegemonic" interpretation.

Oppositional reading could be seen in ineffective advertisements. This is best illustrated in Burger King's "Women Belong in the Kitchen" tweet (Elliott, 2021, n.p). Burger King United Kingdom team published this tweet on March 8, 2021, to honour International Women's Day and advocate for women's representation in the kitchen (Elliott, 2021). However, their audience perceived this advertisement as sexist and reacted with plenty of adverse reactions - an "oppositional" reading (Elliott, 2021). Therefore, it is crucial for encoders to carefully consider potential interpretations and how audiences might perceive them.

Although recognized as ground-breaking, Hall's encoding-decoding model received some criticism. While agreeing that Hall's encoding-decoding model acknowledges the active role of audiences, Aligwe, Nwafor, and Alegu (2018) argue that the model is being subjective and unable to measure media effects (p. 1023). Indeed, scholars often favour “objective” over “subjective” methods as they are thought to mitigate potential bias caused by plenty of unexpected reasons, including controllable ones (Pandey, 2014, p. 1). However, the model proves to be effective in providing neutral spaces for discussion about meaning, advancing our understanding of complex dynamics in mass communication and opening opportunities for academics like David Morley and Adrianne Shaw to explore further and refine communication theories (Morley, 1992; Shaw, 2017).

In the same article, Aligwe, Nwafor, and Alegu (2018) also raise concerns about whether the implication of "semiotic democracy" has fallen into "semiotic disobedience" in oppositional reading (p. 1022). While semiotic democracy is the audience's ability to interpret the message without considering the encoder's intentions, semiotic disobedience is the audience's ability to recode the message according to their personal references (p. 1023). The authors believe that the implications of semiotic democracy and semiotic disobedience "do not foreclose the possibility of media effects" but rather emphasize the importance of conducting audience research before studying (p. 1023). Indeed, this practice of conducting audience research has been widely used in academia as well as industries such as telecommunications, media, infrastructure, and health care due to an increasing need for control over the accuracy of meaning interpretation and a desire for dominant positions in this monopoly economy.

With the common goal of exerting greater control over meaning interpretation, Adrianne Shaw (2018) proposed a revision of Hall's model in connection to William Gaver's idea of affordances to provide academics with a new framework that delivers more efficient media products (p. 594). Gaver's definition consists of three kinds of affordances which are perceptible, hidden, and false. First, perceptible affordances, comparable to dominant-hegemonic codes, occur when the relationship between the objects and subjects exists as expected (p. 594). On the other hand, hidden affordances, corresponding to negotiated codes, happen when intended relationships are not visible (p. 594). Lastly, false affordances, similar to oppositional codes, occur when relationships are visible but do not work as expected (p. 594). Having this revised version of Hall's model, designers could use it as a guideline when implementing signifiers that call for action or create a flow guiding users on their journey through the media products.

In conclusion, Hall's model revolutionized the study of media representation by providing a deeper sociocultural context, making it unique compared to the ones that came before. Moreover, it laid a foundation for many cultural theorists to refine and build upon their work. In recent years, Hall's encoding-decoding model has played a crucial role in creating a framework for academics to study how human beings produce and interpret media text in the interactive media realm via Gaver's development of affordances. Although having considerable criticism, it is deemed imperative as suggestions and refinements will contribute to making the world of cultural studies more prosperous.

Please find clickable links to the references at https://shorturl.at/bpCO1

Keyword: Creative Project

For the second half of COMS 581, I was tasked with remediating the main findings from the Keyword Scholarly Summary into a new medium. I decided to create a zine that serves as a pedagogical tool aimed towards high schoolers and first-year university students aged 17 to 24 who are interested in learning about communication theories and print products. To ensure that my zine would resonate with my target audience, I took inspiration from Get With It's research, which found that this age group loves nostalgic products, cares about mental health causes, and uses social media in unique ways (2023, n.p). I'm confident that my proposed media format will be a hit with this demographic, and I'm excited to see how they respond to my zine. Check out some of the mock-ups I've created below!